The present invention provides a virus isolated from dogs and associated with gastro-enteric diseases. The virus was characterized molecularly and found to belong to the Astroviridae family. Specific antibodies against the virus were identified in convalescent dogs and the 5 presence of the virus was correlated with enteritis in the screened animals.

The invention further provides polynucleotides and proteins isolated from the virus, methods and assays using virus polynucleotide sequences, protein antigens and/or antibodies thereto, diagnostic compositions and kits for the identification of infectious state caused by the virus and vaccine preparations 10 containing the virus or antigens thereof.

Background of the invention

The family Astroviridae includes human and animal small-rounded viruses (SRVs) with a peculiar star-like surface when observed by electron microscopy (EM). Astroviruses (AstVs) are non enveloped and their genome

15 is composed of a plus-sense single-stranded RNA of 6.4-7.3 in size, containing 3 ORFs and with a 3 ' poly-A tail (Mendez and Arias, 2007). Two ORFs, located at the 5 ' end of the genome (ORFl a and ORFlb), encode non structural proteins, while ORF2, located at the 3' end, encodes the capsid protein (Mendez and Arias, 2007). AstVs were first identified by EM in 1975

20 in Scotland in stools of infants hospitalized with diarrhea (Madeley and Cosgrove, 1975). Subsequently, similar SRVs were identified from several mammalian and avian species (Snodgrass and Gray, 1977; Woode and Bridger, 1978; Tzipori et al., 1981; Bridger 1980; Hoshino et al., 1984; Kjeldsberg and Hem, 1985; Englund et al, 2002; McNulty et al, 1980; Todd et

25 al., 2009; Imada et al, 2000) including bats (Chu et al, 2008), and aquatic mammals (Rivera et al, 2009). AstV infection is associated with gastro-enteritis in most animal species and humans AstVs are regarded as the second or third most common cause of viral diarrhoea in children (Mendez and Arias, 2007). Avian AstVs have also been associated with extra-intestinal diseases, such as nephritis in chicken (Imada et al, 2000) and hepatitis in ducks (Todd et al, 2009).

S Vs have been detected only occasionally in dogs by EM. In some cases, due to their morphological similarities (about 25-35 nm in size, rounded shape, absence of envelope), this definition has been used to refer to either AstV- calicivims- or picornavirus-like particles. AstV-like particles were first detected in beagle pups with diarrhoeal disease in USA, 1980, in mixed infection with canine parvovirus type-2 (CPV2) and canine coronaviruses (CCoV) (Williams, 1980). AstV-like particles were also detected in 3/157 normal faeces (but not in 29 diarrheal samples) in a survey in Australia, 1984 (Marshall, 1984). In a large survey in Germany, SRVs were identified in 41/4044 (<1%) faces of diarrhoeal dogs (Vieler and Herbst, 1995). More recently, AstVs have been identified in dogs with enteric signs and characterised molecularly, suggesting that the detected viruses may represent a distinct AstV species (Toffan et al, 2009).

Description of the invention

The invention provides an isolated canine AstV (called "strain

Bari/08") which was identified in dogs with gastro-enteritis that tested negative for all other canine pathogens.

Upon sequence analysis, the virus was characterised as a member of the Mamastrovirus genus, and displayed the highest identity in the polymerase complex (in a short 1 10-aa overlap) (100% aa) and in the full-length capsid protein (83.5% aa) to the canine strain Italy05 (Toffan et al., 2009). However, the genetic diversity between strain Italy05 and Bari/08 appeared markedly higher than that observed between human AstVs of a same serotype. Specifically, between strain Italy05 and Bari/08, a high degree of variation occurred between aa 422 and 668 (50% aa identity), whilst high conservation was found between aa 1 and 422 (98,3%) and in the C-terminal residues downstream aa 668 (95,7%). The hypervariable C-terminal region downstream aa 415 is believed to form the spikes of the virion, and to interact with the cell receptors {Krishna, 2005) as neutralizing monoclonal antibodies have been mapped to this variable domain {Bass and Upadhyayula, 1997; Sanchez- Fauquier et al., 1994).

Thus, the isolated canine virus displays distinctive genetic traits compared to known astrovirus strains. In addition, unlike previously identified canine astroviruses, strain Bari/08 was successfully adapted to grow on a canine cell line (MDCK) after three serial passages and viral replication induced a clear cytophatic effect. Also, viral antigens were visualized in the cytoplasm of infected cells by IF.

The isolated virus according to the invention:

i) encodes a polypeptide SEQ ID NO: l at the carboxy-terminus of the polymerase complex and a capsid protein SEQ ID NO:2; or a polypeptide having at least 95%, preferably at least 97% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: l or SEQ ID NO:2 over the entire sequence;

ii) is able to grow on MDCK cells;

iii) causes gastro-enteritis in dogs.

In one embodiment, the isolated virus contains a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide fragment at the carboxy terminus of the polymerase complex, wherein said polynucleotide is either SEQ ID NO:3 or a polynucleotide hybridizing to full-length SEQ ID NO: 3 under stringent conditions.

In a further embodiment, the isolated virus contains a polynucleotide encoding the capsid protein, wherein said polynucleotide is either SEQ ID NO:4 or a polynucleotide hybridizing to full-length SEQ ID NO:4 under stringent conditions.

In a further embodiment, the isolated virus contains two open reading frames (O F), respectively designated ORFlb and ORF2, that encode for the polypeptides SEQ ID NO: l and SEQ ID NO:2 and overlap each other over a 8-nucleotide region between the termination codon of ORFlb and the initiation codon of ORF2 (Figure 5).

In a preferred embodiment, the isolated virus contains a 3143 nt-long sequence (SEQ ID NO:5) spanning the 3' end of ORFlb (SEQ ID NO:3), the full-length ORF2 (SEQ ID NO:4) and the 3' non coding region to the poly-A tail.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides either an isolated canine astrovirus polypeptide selected from SEQ ID NO: l and SEQ ID NO:2, or a canine astrovirus polypeptide having at least 95%, preferably at least 97% sequence identity to full-length SEQ ID NO: l or SEQ ID NO:2. These virus-specific proteins or antigenic fragments thereof can be used in the development of diagnostic tools and assays, as described below.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides either an isolated canine astrovirus polynucleotide selected from SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4 and SEQ ID NO: 5 or an isolated canine astrovirus polynucleotide hybridizing to the full-length sequence SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4 or SEQ ID NO:5 under stringent conditions.

As used herein, the term "stringent conditions" indicates that the hybridization occurs at a temperature 5-10°C below the Tm and at 0.15 M NaCl ionic strenght.

A further embodiment of the invention relates to an antibody specifically binding to the virus or to an isolated antigen thereof. By using the isolate Bari/08 as antigen, specific antibodies were identified in the convalescent dog and in 59.0% of the tested canine sera. AstV-specific antibodies were detected in dogs with more than 3 months of age. According to the invention, the antibodies can be monoclonal, polyclonal or single chain antibodies or antibody fragments such as Fab, F(ab)2, Fv or scFV fragments.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method for determining the presence of the astrovirus in a dog, comprising the steps of: (i) providing a dog cell, tissue or body fluid sample, (ii) contacting that sample with an antibody that binds the canine astrovirus herein disclosed and (iii) detecting the binding of the antibodies to the sample, whereby detection of a binding is indicative of the presence of the virus in the tested sample. Alternatively, the dog sample can be tested for the presence of antibodies by contacting it with a virus antigen adhered to a solid support and determining the formation of an antigen-antibody complex, whereby detection of the antigen-antibody complex is indicative of virus presence in the sample.

Virus-specific proteins, preferably the capside protein SEQ ID NO:2 or an antigenic peptide thereof can be used to assemble immuno or radio-immuno assays, such as ELISA or Western blot, or for the development of antibodies.

In a yet further embodiment, the invention provides a method for virus detection in dogs which comprises (i) providing a sample of dog cells, tissues or body fluid and (ii) amplifying a virus specific sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:3 and SEQ ID NO:4 or a fragment thereof by means of PC techniques, whereby the detection of a sequence amplicon is indicative of virus presence in the tested sample. Suitable forward and reverse primers may be selected on the basis of their ability to hybridize to SEQ ID NO:3 and SEQ ID NO:4 under stringent conditions, as above described, and allow the elongation of respective strands upon polymerase addition. In a preferred embodiment, the oligonucleotide primers are selected from SEQ ID NO:6 and SEQ ID NO:7.

In a yet further embodiment, the invention provides a diagnostic kit that contains reagents, solutions, buffers, antibodies and/or enzymes in separate compartments, and a leaflet with user instructions to carry out a biological or immunoenzimatic assay or a PC reaction as above described.

A further embodiment of the invention relates to a vaccine composition for immunizing dogs against astrovirus infection. The vaccine contains an isolated or recombinant virus immunogenic protein, which is preferably selected from SEQ ID NO:2, or an avirulent antigenic product obtained by attenuation or inactivation of the astrovirus pathogenic strain herein disclosed. The virus can be isolated from the stools of infected animals, propagated in animal cells, recovered and concentrated to an appropriate viral titer, inactivated by chemical treatment or attenuated by repeated passages in suitable cells, especially in canine cells. Attenuation of the astrovirus isolate according to the invention can be performed with known methods (see for example Gouvea et al., Virology 126:240-247, 1983). The astrovirus strain can be easily identified by means of specific molecular markers, such as the polymerase complex or capsid proteins disclosed herein.

The vaccine composition according to the invention may contain carriers, stabilisers, preservatives, buffers, diluents and adjuvants commonly used in vaccine technology, such as aluminium hydroxide, water/oil emulsions and the like. The vaccine can be administered by several routes, preferably by the parenteral, intramuscular or subcutaneous routes.

The vaccine composition according to the invention is advantageously used to prevent or treat viral gastro-enteritis in dogs, particularly in young animals and pups.

Description of the Figures

Figure 1: Cytopathic effect induced by AstV replication in 24-hours infected MDCK cells at the 3 ^rd passage.

Figure 2: Indirect IF on MDCK cells infected by canine AstV.

Figure 3: EM observation on the pooled faecal samples.

Figure 4: Phylogenetic tree based on the full-length amino acid sequence of the capsid protein of AstVs of avian and mammalian origin. The tree was elaborated with the neighbour-joining method without any distance correction. The accession numbers of the AstV strains used are listed in Table 1.

Figure 5: AstV genome organization. The portion of the genome of the canine AstV Ba/08 (from the 3' end of ORFlb to the poly A tail) 3.1Kb in length, is shown in grey.

Experimental section

History of the animal and virological examinations. A 90-day-old mixed-breed pup developed a gastro-enteric disease with watery diarrhoea. The pup was hospitalised 2 days after the onset of the gastro-enteric disease due to severe dehydration. After 2 days of illness, the dog recovered completely. At the time of hospitalization, the faeces were collected and screened for the presence of common canine viral pathogens by either gel-based PCR or quantitative PCR and RT-PCR. DNA and RNA extracts were prepared using the DNAeasy® and QIAamp® viral RNA kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany). The faeces of the pup tested negative to all known viral pathogens, including (canine parvovirus type-2 (CPV-2), canine coronaviruses (CCoV), distemper virus (CDV), adenoviruses (CAV-1 and CAV-2), reovirus, rotavirus and calicivirus. Unexpectedly, the stools tested positive to AstV using a broadly reactive primer pair, targeted to the ORFlb region (Chu et al., 2008). After the detection of astroviral RNA in the faeces of the dog, the animal was kept under observation. Faecal samples were collected daily from days post-hospitalization (dph) 2 to 30 in order to monitor virus shedding. Astroviral NA was detected until dph 10. In addition, serum samples were obtained from the dog at hospitalization and at dph 14 and 28.

Cultivation on canine cell lines. Faecal samples collected from dph 2 to 6 were pooled and then used in attempts to adapt the virus to growth in tissue cultured cells. Evidence was obtained for viral growth in canine cell lines (MDCK) grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle' medium (DMEM) supplemented with trypsin 20 μ§/ηι1 (type IX, Sigma), after the 3 ^rd serial passage. The cytopathic effect was characterized by enlargement and/or detaching of cells and by appearance of fine granules in the cytoplasm. Astroviral antigen in the infected cells was revealed by indirect immunofluorescence (IF) using the convalescent serum (dph 28) of the dog and a fluoresceine-coniugated anti-dog serum (Sigma-Aldrich Sri, Milan, Italy).

Electron microscopy observation. Faecal samples collected from dph

2 to 6 were pooled and processed for EM observation. Briefly, the faeces were diluted 1 : 10 in distilled water, vortexed and centrifuged for 20 min at 4000xg and again for 10 min at 9300xg for clarification. The supernatant was then ultracentrifuged (Beckman Airfuge) for 15 min at 82000xg. After negative staining with 2% sodium phosphotungstate (pH 6.8), samples were examined using a Philips CM 10 electron microscope.

Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the astrovirus strain. The amplicons obtained with the ORF lb-astrovirus-specific primers (Chu et al, 2008) were excised from the gel and purified using a QIAquick gel extraction kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany). The fragment was then subjected to direct sequencing using BigDye Terminator Cycle chemistry and 3730 DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster, CA). Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) and FASTA (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/fasta33) with default values were used to find homologous hits.

In order to determine the sequence and genomic organization of the AstV strain, a 3.2 kb region at the 3' end of the genome was amplified by T-PC as described by Wang et al. (2005). cDNA was synthesized by Superscript III First-Strand cDNA synthesis kit (Invitrogen Ltd, Paisley, UK) with primer VN ₃ T ₂₀ (5 '-GAGTGACCGCGGCCGCT ₂₀ -3 '-SEQ ID NO: 8). PCR was then performed with TaKaRa La Taq polymerase (Takara Bio Europe S.A.S.

Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France) with forward primer and VN T ₂₀ .

Finally, the amplicon was purified and cloned by using TOPO ^® XL Cloning Kit (Invitrogen Ltd, Paisley, UK). Additional primers also were designed to determine the complete 3.2 kb sequence by an overlapping strategy.

Sequence editing and multiple alignments were performed with Bioedit software package vers. 2.1 (Hall et al, 1999). Phylogenetic analysis (Neighbor- Joining and UPGMA) with bootstrap analysis (1 ,000 replicates) and no distance correction was conducted by using the MEGA software package v4.0 (Tamura et al, 2007).

Analysis of the capsid protein of strain Bari/08/ITA. Pair-wise identity in the full-length capsid protein of strain Ca/Bari/08/ITA to a selection of AstV strains was determined using multiple alignments generated with Bioedit software package vers. 2.1 (Hall et al, 1999) The values were calculated by the uncorrected distance method using a 31 -sequence alignment without removing the gaps, including sequences of human and animal AstVs. The strain and sequences used are listed in table 1.

Table 1: list of AstV strains (with the Accession numbers) included in the present study. Only strains for whom complete sequence of the ORF2 (encoding for the capsid protein) was available were included in the study. Strain designation of the viruses is reported as in the original studies and/or as found in the GenBank databases.

Species of origin Type strain Accession number

Human Type 1 Dresden AY720892

Human Type 2 Oxford L06802

Human Type 3 WH1859 DQ630763

Human Type 4 Goiania/GO/12/95/Brazil DQ070852

Human Type 5 Goiania/GO/ 12/94/Brazil DQ028633

Human Type 6 192-BJ07-CHN GQ495608

Human Type 7 Oxford AF248738

Human Type 8 Yuc-8 AF260508

Human VA1 VA1 FJ973620

Human VA2 VA2/human/Stl/WD0680/2009 GQ502193

Human MLB1 MLB1 FJ222451

Human HMO A NI-295 NC_013443

Human HMO B NI-196 GQ415661

Human HMO C NI-3010 GQ415662

Ovine Y15937

Mink AY 179509

Porcine Tokushima83-74 AB037272

Feline Bristol AF056197

Dog Italy/2005 FM213332

California sea lion Type 1 CSL1 FJ890351

California sea lion Type 2 CSL2 FJ890352

Bottlenose dolphin Type 1 Bdl FJ890355

Bat Type 1 AFCD337 EU847155

Bat LC03 Hp/Guangxi/LC03/2007 FJ571074

Bat LD38 Tm/Guangxi/LD38/2007 FJ571065

Duck C-NGB NC_012437

Turkey Type 1 Y15936

Turkey Type 2 NC 005790

Turkey Type 3 2001 AY769616

Chicken ANV-1 G-4260 AB033998

Collection of faecal samples and extraction of DNA and RNA. A total of 1 10 stool samples were screened. The samples were a subset of a collection obtained between January and December 2007 from young dogs (aged 1 to 6 months) of various origin (animals housed in shelters and/or pet shops and hospitalized animals) with signs of mild to severe gastro-enteritis. DNA and RNA extracts were prepared using the DNAeasy® and QIAamp® viral RNA kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany).

Screening for canine enteric and non-enteric viral pathogens. All faecal samples were screened for the presence of common canine viral pathogens by either gel-based PCR or quantitative PCR and RT-PCR (qPCR and qRT-PCR). The samples were screened for CPV-2 (Decaro et al, 2005), enteric CCoVs (Decaro et al, 2004), and CDV (Elia et al, 2004) by qPCR or qRT-PCR, using a LightCycler instrument (i-Cycler iQTM Real-Time Detection, Bio-Rad Laboratories Sri) and IQ™ Supermix (Bio-Rad Laboratories Sri), after reverse transcription of RNA with MuLV reverse transcriptase (Applied Biosystem, Monza, Italy) for RNA viruses. Screening for CAV-1 and CAV-2 (Hu et al, 2001), respiratory coronavirus (CrCoV) {Decaro et al 2008), rotavirus (Gentsch et al, 1992) and norovirus ( Vennema and Koopmans, 2002) was accomplished by conventional PCR or RT-PCR, in a Gene Amp ^® PCR System 9700 (Applied Biosystem, Monza, Italy), using TaKaRa La Taq polymerase (Takara Bio Europe S.A.S. Saint-Germain-en- Laye, France) for DNA viruses and Superscript III One step RT-PCR kit (Invitrogen Ltd, Paisley, UK) for RNA viruses.

Screening for astroviruses by RT-PCR. The RNA extracts were screened using a primer pair specific for canine AstVs. Primers 625F-1 (GTA CTA TAC CRT CTG ATT TAA TT-SEQ ID NO: 9) and 626R-1 (AGA CCA ARG TGT CATAGT TCA G-SEQ ID NO: 10) were designed on the ORFlb sequence to amplify selectively a fragment of 300 bp in length.

Serological investigations. Detection of specific antibodies for strain Bari/08 in the canine serum samples was performed using an indirect immunofluorescence (IF) assay. A total of 54 serum samples, obtained from dogs aged 2 months to 7 years, were screened. The virus Bari/08 was used as antigen. Confluent MDCK cell monolayers were infected and gently harvested in the presence of advanced cytopathic effect (affecting at least 70-80% of the cells). Infected cells were distributed onto multispot glass slides and dried at 37°C. The slides were fixed in 100% cold acetone at room temperature for 30 min, and stored at -80°C until used. Ten microliters of each serum sample, at a dilution 1 :50, were layered onto the cells and incubated at 37°C for 30 min. After three washes with phosphate buffered solution, antiserum to dog IgG conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (Sigma-Aldrich srl, Milan, Italy) was added and the slides were incubated at 37°C for 30 min. After three washes with PBS, the slides were observed under a fluorescent microscope and the antibody titres were calculated as the highest serum dilutions still giving cytoplasmatic fluorescence in the antigen preparations.

Characterization of the virus isolate as AstV. The canine AstV Bari/08 was adapted to grow on MDCK cells. After the 3 ^rd serial passage, a clear cytopathic effect was observed, characterized by enlargement and/or detaching of cells and by appearance of fine granules in the cytoplasm (Figure 1). Viral antigens were observed in the cells as fine granules dispersed in the cytoplasm, and aggregating in perinuclear position (Figure 2). Also, S Vs were identified in pooled faecal samples by EM observation (Figure 3).

Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the isolate Bari/08. A 3143 nt-long sequence was determined, spanning the 3 ' end of ORFlb, the full-length ORF2 and the 3' non coding region (NCR) to the poly-A tail. The 3' end of ORFlb comprised 716 nt, encoding for a 237-aa polypeptide fragment at the COOH-terminus of the polymerase complex. In this 237-aa fragment, the highest identity was 79.6% to California Sea Lion type-2 AstV. However, identity was 100% to shorter fragments (1 1 1 aa) of AstV strains detected from dogs (Toffan et al, 2009). There was a 8 nt-overlap between the termination codon of O Flb and the initiation codon of ORF2. The highly conserved nt stretch upstream of ORF2, ATTTGGAGNGGNGGACCNAAN _{5- 8} ATGNC (SEQ ID NO: 1 1), believed to be part of a promoter region for synthesis of subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) (Walter et al, 2001), was nearly completely conserved in the sequence of strain Bari/08. The ORF2 was 2325 nt in length and encoded for a capsid protein of 774 aa, with a predicted molecular mass of 84.7 kd. The non coding region (NCR) was 87 nt in length. By pair-wise comparison, the highest identity (83.5%) in the capsid protein was found to a canine AstV, strain Dog/Italy05. Identity to other mammalian AstVs ranged from 20.1 to 35.6% aa, whilst identity to avian AstVs was 13.7- 17.3% aa (Table 1). The 6-aa long C-terminus of the VP1 (SRGHAE) was highly conserved with several mammalian AstVs. This motif is within a highly conserved nt stretch, s2m, overlapping the termination codon of ORF2, and shared also by some coronaviruses and picornaviruses (Jonassen et al, 1998). By phylogenetic analysis, the strain was clustered with the canine strain Italy05, intermingled with AstVs detected from aquatic mammals in the Mamastrovirus genogroup (Figure 4).

Table 2. Amino acid identity in the capsid protein between the canine viruses Italy/05 and Bari/08 and avian and mammalian AstVs, representative of the various AstV species/types. The values were calculated based on the full-length capsid protein alignment, without removing the gaps.

AstV Italy05 Bari/08

Human type 1 34,1 33,6

Human type 2 33,2 34,0

Human type 3 33,9 33,9

Human type 4 34,7 34,4

Human type 5 34,2 34,8

Human type 6 34,9 35,2

Human type 7 34,3 34,4

Human type 8 34,5 35,0

Human VA1 21,9 22,0

Human VA2 20,3 20,7

Human MLB 1 22,2 21,9

Mink 22,7 23,0

Pig 35,2 35,0

CSL type 1 20,3 20,1

CSL type2 35,1 35,6

Bottlenose dolphin 29,8 29,9

Bat type 1 20,7 20,3

Bat LC03 20,4 20,6

Bat LD38 20,4 20,6

Duck 16,9 16,3

Turkey type 1 15,1 15,2

Turkey type 2 16,7 17,1

Turkey type 3 17,3 17,3

Avian nephritis virus- 1 13,6 13,7

Dog Italy/05 ID 83,5

Dog Bari/08 83,5 ID

Screening for canine enteric and non-enteric viral pathogens and for AstV. A total of 1 10 stool samples were screened for common canine viral pathogens and for AstV. By RT-PCR, AstV RNA was detected in 27/1 10 samples (24,5%), either alone (10/1 10, 9.0%) or in mixed infections with CPV-2 (5/1 10, 4.5%) and CCoVs (8/1 10, 7.3%) or CPV-2+CCoVs (4/1 10, 3.6%). Sequence analysis of the amplicons confirmed the specific nature of the bands.

Detection by IF of antibodies specific for strain Bari/08 in dog sera. Antibodies specific for virus Bari/08 were detected in 32/54 (59.0%) serum samples. The majority (14/22, 63.6%) of the serum samples testing negative were from pups aged less than 3 months, while only 2/32 (6.25%) of the positive sera were from dogs aged less than 3 months (P<0,0001).

References

1. Bass D. M., and U. Upadhyayula. 1997. Characterization of human serotype 1 astrovirus-neutralizing epitopes. J. Virol. 71(1 1):8666-8671.

2. Bridger J. C. 1980. Detection by electron microscopy of caliciviruses, astroviruses and rotavirus-like particles in the faeces of piglets with diarrhoea. Vet Rec. 107(23):532-533.

3. Chu D. K., L. L. Poon, Y. Guan, and J.S. Peiris. 2008. Novel astroviruses in insectivorous bats. J. Virol. 82(18):9107-91 14.

4. Decaro, N., A. Pratelli, M. Campolo, G. Elia, V. Martella, M. Tempesta, and C. Buonavoglia. 2004. Quantitation of canine coronavirus RNA in the faeces of dogs by TaqMan RT-PCR. J. Virol. Methods 119: 145- 150.

5. Decaro, N., G. Elia, M. Campolo, C. Desario, V. Mari, A. Radogna, M. L. Colaianni, F. Cirone, M. Tempesta, and C. Buonavoglia. 2008.

Detection of bovine coronavirus using a TaqMan-based real-time RT-PCR assay. J. Virol. Methods 151 : 167-171.

6. Decaro, N., G. Elia, V. Martella, C. Desario, M. Campolo, L. D. Trani, E. Tarsitano, M. Tempesta, and C. Buonavoglia. 2005. A real-time PCR assay for rapid detection and quantitation of canine parvovirus type 2 in the feces of dogs. Vet. Microbiol. 105: 19-28.

7. Elia, G., N. Decaro, V. Martella, F. Cirone, M. S. Lucente, E. Lorusso, T. L. Di, and C. Buonavoglia. 2006. Detection of canine distemper virus in dogs by real-time RT-PCR. J. Virol. Methods 136: 171- 176.

8. Englund L., M. Chriel, H. H. Dietz, and K. O. Hedlund. 2002. Astrovirus epidemiologically linked to pre -weaning diarrhoea in mink. Vet. Microbiol. 85(1): 1-1 1.

9. Evermann, J. F., A. J. McKeirnan, A. W. Smith, D. E. Skilling, and R. L. Ott. 1985. Isolation and identification of caliciviruses from dogs with enteric infections. Am. J. Vet. Res. 46:218-220.

10. Gentsch, J. R., R. I. Glass, P. Woods, V. Gouvea, M. Gorziglia, J. Flores, B. K. Das, and M. K. Bhan. 1992. Identification of group A rotavirus gene 4 types by polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 1365-1373.

1 1. Hall, T.A. 1999. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment and analysis program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic. Acids Symp. Ser. 41:95-98.

12. Hoshino Y., J. F. Zimmer, N. S. Moise, and F. W. Scott. 1981. Detection of astroviruses in feces of a cat with diarrhea. Arch. Virol.

70(4):373-376. (Brief report.)

13. Hu, R. L., G. Huang, W. Qiu, Z. H. Zhong, X. Z. Xia, and Z. Yin.

2001. Detection and differentiation of CAV-1 and CAV-2 by polymerase chain reaction. Vet. Res. Commun. 25:77-84.

14. Imada T., S. Yamaguchi, M. Mase, K. Tsukamoto, M. Kubo, and A. Morooka. 2000. Avian nephritis virus (ANV) as a new member of the family Astroviridae and construction of infectious ANV cDNA. J. Virol. 74(18):8487-8493.

15. Jonassen C. M., T. O. Jonassen, and B. Grinde. 1998. A common RNA motif in the 3' end of the genomes of astroviruses, avian infectious bronchitis virus and an equine rhinovirus. J. Gen. Virol. 79(4):715-718.

16. Kjeldsberg E, and A. Hem. 1985. Detection of astroviruses in gut contents of nude and normal mice. Arch. Virol. 84(1-2): 135-140. (Brief report.)

17. Koopmans M. P., Bijen M. H., S. S. Monroe, J. Vinje. 1998. Age- stratified seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies to astrovirus types 1 to 7 in humans in The Netherlands. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 5(l):33-37. 18. Krishna N. K. 2005. Identification of structural domains involved in astrovirus capsid biology. Viral Immunol. 18(1): 17-26.

19. Kurtz J.B., and T. W. Lee. 1984. Human astrovirus serotypes. Lancet. 2(8416): 1405.

20. Madeley C. R., and B. P. Cosgrove. 1975. 28 nm particles in faeces in infantile gastroenteritis. Lancet. 6;2(7932):451-452. (Letter.)

21. Marshall J. A, D. S. Healey, M. J. Studdert, P. C. Scott, M. L. Kennett, B. K. Ward, and I. D. Gust. 1984. Viruses and virus-like particles in the faeces of dogs with and without diarrhoea. Aust. Vet. J. 61(2):33-38.

22. Martella V., E. Lorusso, N. Decaro, G. Elia, A. Radogna, M. D'Abramo, C. Desario, A. Cavalli, M. Corrente, M. Camero, C. A.

Germinario, K. Banyai, B. Di Martino, F. Marsilio, L. E. Carmichael, and C. Buonavoglia. 2008. Detection and molecular characterization of a canine norovirus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14(8): 1306-1308.

23. Martella V., N. Decaro, E. Lorusso, A. Radogna, P. Moschidou, F. Amorisco, M. S. Lucente, C. Desario, V. Mari, G. Elia, K. Banyai, L. E.

Carmichael, and C. Buonavoglia. 2009. Genetic heterogeneity and recombination in canine noroviruses. J. Virol. 83(21): 1 1391-1 1396.

24. McNulty M. S., W. L. Curran, J.B. McFerran. 1980. Detection of astroviruses in turkey faeces by direct electron microscopy. Vet. ec. 106(26):561.

25. Mendez, E., and C. F. Arias. 2007. Astroviruses, p. 981-1000. In D. M. Knipe and P. M. Howley (ed.), Fields virology, 5th ed., vol. 1. Lippincott Willliams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.

26. Mendez-Toss M., P. Romero-Guido, M. E. Munguia, E. Mendez, and C. F. Arias. 2000. Molecular analysis of a serotype 8 human astrovirus genome. J. Gen. Virol. 81 (12):2891-2897.

27. Mochizuki, M., A. Kawanishi, H. Sakamoto, S. Tashiro, R. Fujimoto, and M. Ohwaki. 1993. A calicivims isolated from a dog with fatal diarrhoea. Vet. ec. 132:221-222.

28. Pollock R.V.H., and L. E. Carmichael. 1982. Maternally derived immunity to canine parvovirus infection: transfer, decline, and interference with vaccination. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 180:37-42.

29. Rivera R., H. H. Nollens, S. Venn-Watson, F. M. Gulland, and J. F. Wellehan Jr. 2010. Characterization of phylogenetically diverse astroviruses of marine mammals. J. Gen. Virol. 91(1): 166-173.

30. San Gabriel, M. C, Y. Tohya, T. Sugimura, T. Shimizu, S. Ishiguro, and M. Mochizuki. 1997. Identification of canine calicivirus capsid protein and its immunore activity in western blotting. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 59:97-101.

31. Sanchez-Fauquier A., A. L. Carrascosa, J. L. Carrascosa, A. Otero, R. I. Glass, J. A. Lopez, C. San Martin, and J. A. Melero. 1994. Characterization of a human astrovirus serotype 2 structural protein (VP26) that contains an epitope involved in virus neutralization. Virology. 201(2):312-320.

32. Schaffer, F. L., M. E. Soergel, J. W. Black, D. E. Skilling, A. W. Smith, and W. D. Cubitt. 1985. Characterization of a new calicivirus isolated from feces of a dog. Arch. Virol. 84: 181-195.

33. Snodgrass D. R., and E. W. Gray. 1977. Detection and transmission of 30 nm virus particles (astroviruses) in faeces of lambs with diarrhoea. Arch.

Virol. 55(4):287-291.

34. Tamura K., J. Dudley, M. Nei and S. Kumar. 2007. MEGA4: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) software version 4.0. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24: 1596-1599

35. Todd D., V. J. Smyth, N. W. Ball, B. M. Donnelly, M. Wylie, N. J. Knowles, and B. M. Adair. 2009. Identification of chicken enterovirus-like viruses, duck hepatitis virus type 2 and duck hepatitis virus type 3 as astroviruses. Avian Pathol. 38(l):21-30. 36. Toffan A., C. M. Jonassen, C. De Battisti, E. Schiavon, T. Kofstad, I. Capua, and G. Cattoli. 2009. Genetic characterization of a new astrovirus detected in dogs suffering from diarrhoea. Vet. Microbiol. 139(1-2): 147-152.

37. Tzipori S., J. D. Menzies, and E. W. Gray. 1981. Detection of astrovirus in the faeces of red deer. Vet ec. 108(13):286.

38. Vennema, H., E. de Bruin, and M. Koopmans. 2002. Rational optimization of generic primers used for Norwalk-like virus detection by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Virol. 25:233-235.

39. Vieler E., and W. Herbst. 1995. Electron microscopic demonstration of viruses in feces of dogs with diarrhea. Tierarztl. Prax. 23(l):66-69.

40. Walter J. E., J. Briggs, M. L. Guerrero, D. O. Matson, L. K. Pickering, G. Ruiz-Palacios, T. Berke, and D. K. Mitchell. 2001. Molecular characterization of a novel recombinant strain of human astrovirus associated with gastroenteritis in children. Arch. Virol. 146(12):2357-2367.

41. Wang, Q. H., M. G. Han, S. Cheetham, M. Souza, J. A. Funk, and L. J. Saif. 2005. Porcine noroviruses related to human noroviruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 1874- 1881.

42. Williams F.P. Jr. 1980. Astrovirus-like, coronavirus-like, and parvovirus-like particles detected in the diarrheal stools of beagle pups. Arch. Virol. 66(3):215-226.

43. Woode G. N., and J. C. Bridger. 1978. Isolation of small viruses resembling astroviruses and caliciviruses from acute enteritis of calves. J. Med. Microbiol. ll(4):441-52.