BACKGROUND Numerous known die attach methods utilize a high-lead solder or solder material to attach the semiconductor die within an integrated circuit to a leadframe for mechanical connection and to provide thermal and electrical conductivity between the die and leadframe. Although most high-lead solders are relatively inexpensive and exhibit various desirable physico-chemical properties, the use of lead in die attach and other solders has come under increased scrutiny from an environmental and occupational health perspective. Consequently, various approaches have been undertaken to replace lead-containing solders with lead-free die attach compositions.

For example, in one approach, polymeric adhesives (e. g., epoxy resins or cyanate ester resins) are utilized to attach a die to a substrate as described in U. S. Pat. Nos. 5,150, 195; 5,195, 299; 5,250, 600; 5,399, 907 and 5, 386, 000. Polymeric adhesives typically cure within a relatively short time at temperatures generally below 200°C, and may even retain structural flexibility after curing to allow die attach of integrated circuits onto flexible substrates as shown in U. S. Pat. No. 5,612, 403.

However, many polymeric adhesives tend to produce resin bleed, potentially leading to undesirable reduction of electrical contact of the die with the substrate, or even partial or total detachment of the die.

To circumvent at least some of the problems with resin bleed, silicone-containing die attach adhesives may be utilized as described in U. S. Pat. No. 5, 982, 041 to Mitani et al. While such adhesives tend to improve the bonding of the wire, as well as that between the resin sealant and the semiconductor chip, substrate, package, and/or lead frame, the curing process for at least some of

such adhesives requires a source of high-energy radiation, which may add significant cost to the die attach process.

Alternatively, a glass paste comprising a high-lead borosilicate glass may be utilized as described in U. S. Pat. No. 4,459, 166 to Dietz et al., thereby generally avoiding a high-energy curing step. However, many glass pastes comprising a high-lead borosilicate glass require temperatures of 425°C and higher to permanently bond the die to the substrate. Moreover, glass pastes frequently tend to crystallize during heating and cooling, thereby reducing the adhesive qualities of the bonding layer.

In yet another approach, various high melting solders are utilized to attach a die to a substrate or leadframe. Soldering a die to a substrate has various advantages, including relatively simple processing, solvent-free application, and in some instances relatively low cost. There are various high melting solders known in the art. However, all or almost all of them have one or more disadvantages. For example, most gold eutectic alloys (e. g., Au-20% Sn, Au-3% Si, Au-12% Ge, and Au-25% Sb) are relatively costly and frequently suffer from less-than-ideal mechanical properties. Alternatively, Alloy J (Ag-10% Sb-65% Sn, see e. g. , U. S. Pat. No. 4,170, 472 to Olsen et al. ) may be used in various high melting solder applications. However, Alloy J has a solidus of 228°C and also suffers from relatively poor mechanical performance.

Although various methods and compositions for solders and die attach compositions are known in the art, all or almost all of them suffer from one or more disadvantages. Thus, there is still a need to provide improved compositions and methods for solders, and particularly for lead-free solders.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The subject matter disclosed herein is directed to methods, compositions, and devices that include a solder comprising an alloy of Ag and Bi, with Ag present in an amount of about 2 weight percent (wt%) to 18 wt% and Bi in an amount of 98 wt% to 82 wt%. Contemplated solders have a solidus of no lower than about 262. 5°C and a liquidus of no higher than about 400°C. Contemplated solders and/or solder materials may also comprise at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof in an amount ranging from about 10 ppm to about 1000 ppm.

In one aspect of the inventive subject matter, the silver in the alloy is present in an amount of about 2 wt% to about 7 wt% and the bismuth in an amount of about 98 wt% to about 93 wt%, or the silver in the alloy is present in an amount of about 7 wt% to about 18 wt% and the bismuth in an amount of about 93 wt% to about 82 wt%, or the silver in the alloy is present in an amount of about 5 wt% to about 9 wt% and the bismuth in an amount of about 95 wt% to about 91 wt%.

Contemplated compositions may further comprise a chemical element having an oxygen affinity that is higher than the oxygen affinity of at least one of the primary constituents of the alloy, preferred elements include Al, Ba, Ca, Ce, Cs, Hf, Li, Mg, Nd, Sc, Sr, P, Ti, Y, Ge and Zr and especially contemplated elements are phosphorus and germanium. The concentration of contemplated elements is typically in a range of between about 10 ppm and about 1000 ppm; however, alternative ranges are also contemplated.

In another aspect of the inventive subject matter, contemplated solders have a thermal con- ductivity of at least 9 W/m K, and exhibit a wetting force to wet various substrates, including those comprising Cu, Ag, Ni, and Au, of approximately 0.2 micro-mm on a wetting balance after 1 second. Contemplated compositions may be formed into various shapes, including wires, ribbons, preforms, spheres, or ingots.

In a yet another aspect, contemplated compositions comprise Bi (85 wt% to 98 wt%) and Ag (2 wt% to 15 wt%), and at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof in a range of about 10 ppm to about 1000 ppm. Such compositions may further include phosphorus in a range of about 10 ppm to 500 ppm. An example of contemplated compositions include alloys in which Bi is present at about 89 wt%, Ag at about 11 wt%, and at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof at about 500 ppm (with optional addition of phosphorus up to 250 ppm), wherein such compositions have improved wettability on at least Cu and Ni over similar compositions without zinc, nickel, germanium, phosphorus and/or a combination thereof.

In a further aspect of the inventive subject matter, an electronic device comprises a semicon- ductor die that is coupled to a surface via contemplated compositions, wherein particularly contemplated semiconductor dies include silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide dies. It is further contemplated that at least one of a portion of the die or a portion of the surface of such devices may be metallized with silver. In particularly preferred aspects, the surface comprises a silver-metallized leadframe. In further aspects, contemplated solders are utilized in an area array electronic package in

form of a plurality of bumps on a semiconductor die to serve as electrical interconnects between the die and either a package substrate (generally known as flip chip) or a printed wiring board (generally known as chip on board). Alternatively, contemplated solders may be utilized in the form of a plurality of solder balls to connect a package to a substrate (generally known as ball grid array with many variations on the theme) or to connect the die to either a substrate or printed wiring board.

In a still further aspect of the inventive subject matter, a method of manufacturing a solder composition has one step in which bismuth and silver are provided in an amount of 98 wt% to 82 wt% and 2 wt% to 18 wt%, respectively, wherein the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof is present in an amount of up to about 1000 ppm. In a further step, the silver, bismuth, and the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof are melted at a temperature of at least about 960°C to form an alloy having a solidus of no lower than about 262. 5°C and a liquidus of no higher than about 400°C. Contemplated methods further include optional addition of a chemical element having an oxygen affinity that is higher than the oxygen affinity of the alloy.

Various objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention along with the accompanying drawing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1 is a Ag-Bi phase diagram.

Figure 2 is an electron micrograph of an exemplary Ag-Bi alloy.

Figure 3 is a Ge-Ni phase diagram.

( Figure 4 is a graph depicting thermal conductivity of Ag-Bi with varying Ag content.

Figures 5A and 5B are graphs depicting wetting forces of contemplated alloys on various substrates.

Figure 6 is a table showing calculated contact angles of various alloys.

Figure 7 is a photograph of exemplary wetting behavior of contemplated alloys on Ni- plated leadframes with various concentrations of germanium.

Figure 8 is a schematic vertical cross section of a contemplated electronic device.

Figures 9A and 9B are photographs/SAM-microscopy photographs of dies attached to leadframes using exemplary alloys.

Figure 10A is a Ni-Bi phase diagram.

Figure 1 OB is an electron micrograph of an exemplary alloy with specific regard to Ni and Bi.

Figures 11A and 11B are electron micrographs of substrates showing completed Ag scavenging.

Figure 12 is a table summarizing various physical properties of various alloys.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION It has been discovered that, among other desirable properties, contemplated compositions may advantageously be utilized as near drop-in replacements for high-lead-containing solders in various die attach applications. In particular, contemplated compositions are lead-free alloys having a solidus of no lower than about 260°C (and preferably no lower than about 262. 5°C) and a liquidus no higher than about 400°C. Various aspects of the contemplated methods and compositions are disclosed in copending PCT application PCT/US01/17491 incorporated herein in its entirety.

A group of contemplated compositions comprise binary alloys that maybe used as solder and that comprise silver in an amount of about 2 wt% to about 18 wt% and bismuth in an amount of about 98 wt% to about 82 wt%. Figure 1 shows an Ag-Bi phase diagram. Compositions contemplated herein can be prepared by a) providing a charge of appropriately weighed quantities (supra) of the pure metals ; b) heating the metals under vacuum or an inert atmosphere (e. g., nitrogen or helium) to between about 960°C-1000°C in a refractory or heat resistant vessel (e. g. , a graphite crucible) until a liquid solution forms ; and c) stirring the metals at that temperature for an amount of time sufficient to ensure complete mixing and melting of both metals. Nickel, zinc, germanium or

combinations thereof may be added to the charge or molten material at dopant quantities of up to about 1000 ppm, and more preferably of up to about 500 ppm.

The molten mixture, or melt, is then quickly poured into a mold, allowed to solidify by cooling to ambient temperature, and fabricated into wire by conventional extrusion techniques, which includes heating the billet to approximately 190°C, or into ribbon by a process in which a rectangular slab is first annealed at temperatures between about 225-250°C and then hot-rolled at the same temperature. Alternatively, a ribbon may be extruded that can subsequently be rolled to thinner dimensions. The melting step may also be carried out under air so long as the slag that forms is removed before pouring the mixture into the mold. Figure 2 shows an electron micrograph, in which the Ag-Bi alloy appears to form a hypoeutectic alloy wherein the primary constituent (silver) is surrounded by fine eutectic structure. As can be seen from the electron micrograph, there is only negligible mutual solubility in the material, thus resulting in a more ductile material than bismuth metal.

In other embodiments, especially where higher liquidus temperatures are desired, contemplated compositions may include Ag in the alloy in an amount of about 7 wt% to about 18 wt% and Bi in an amount of about 93 wt% to about 82 wt%. On the other hand, where relatively lower liquidus temperatures are desired, contemplated compositions may include Ag in the alloy in an amount of about 2 wt% to about 7 wt% and Bi in an amount of about 98 wt% to about 93 wt%.

However, it is generally contemplated that most die attach applications may employ a composition in which Ag is present in the alloy in an amount of about 5 wt% to about 12 wt% and Bi in an amount of about 95 wt% to about 89 wt%. For these embodiments, an exemplary alloy may have the composition of Bi at about 89 wt% and Ag at about 11 wt%.

At this point it should be understood that, unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, constituents, reaction conditions and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term"about". Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the subject matter presented herein. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying

ordinary rounding techniques. Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the subject matter presented herein are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contain certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

It should be particularly appreciated that contemplated compositions maybe utilized as lead- free solders that are also essentially devoid of Sn, which is a common and predominant component in known lead-free solder. Moreover, while it is generally contemplated that particularly suitable compositions are binary alloys, it should also be appreciated that alternative compositions may include ternary, quaternary, and higher alloys.

Particularly suitable alternative compositions may include one or more chemical elements having an oxygen affinity that is higher than the oxygen affinity of at least one of the primary constituents of the alloy (without the chemical element). Especially contemplated chemical elements comprise. Al, Ba, Ca, Ce, Cs, Hf, Li, Mg, Nd, P, Sc, Sr, Ti, Y, Ge and Zr, and it is further contemplated that such chemical elements maybe present in the alloy at a concentration of between about 10 ppm (and less) and approximately 1000 ppm (and even higher). While not wishing to be bound to a particular theory or mechanism, it is contemplated that elements having a higher oxygen affinity than the alloy reduce the formation of metal oxides that are known to increase the surface tension of a melting or molten solder. Therefore, it is contemplated that a decrease in the amount of metal oxides during soldering will generally reduce the surface tension of the molten solder, and thereby significantly increases the wetting ability of the solder.

Moreover, it is particularly contemplated that phosphorus (P) may be added to improve wetting alone or in combination with other metals (e. g., germanium (Ge) ). While not wishing to be bound to a particular theory or hypothesis, it is contemplated that phosphorus may act as a flux, and that addition or synergistic effects of phosphorus with other metals may further improve wettability to at least some substrates (e. g., to a substrate comprising Ag, infra). In this regard, a chemical element may be added that forms an intermetallic complex or compound with nickel, copper, gold, silver or a combination thereof.

One or more metals may also be added to improve thermo-mechanical properties (e. g., thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, hardness, paste range, ductility, wettability to

various metal-plated substrates, etc. ) of the lead-free solder. Contemplated metals comprise indium, tin, antimony, zinc, and nickel. However, various metals other than the aforementioned metals are also suitable for use in conjunction with the teachings presented herein, so long as such metals improve at least one thermo-mechanical property. Consequently, further contemplated metals comprise copper, gold, germanium, and arsenic.

Especially contemplated alloys may therefore include Ag in an amount of about 2 wt% to about 18 wt%, Bi in an amount of about 98 wt% to about 82 wt%, and a third element in an amount of up to about 5.0 wt%, and more typically within the range of about 10 ppm to about 1000 ppm, depending on the particular thermo-mechanical property. Exemplary contemplated third elements include at least one of Au, Cu, Pt, Sb, In, Sn, Ni, and/or Zn, and especially contemplated third elements, are at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium and/or a combination thereof.

Where the third element comprises at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium (Ge) or a combination thereof, it is contemplated that the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof is present in preferred alloys in a range of between about 10 ppm and about 1000 ppm, more typically in a range of between about 200 ppm and about 700 ppm, and most typically at a concentration of about 500 ppm. Addition of the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof was observed to improve wettability to substrates plated with various metals, particularly including copper and nickel, or a bare metal that has not been plated, such as a leadframe, where the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof were added in amounts of between about 10 ppm to about 100 ppm. While not wishing to be bound to a particular theory, it is contemplated that the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof may advantageously form intermetallic complexes with Ni, or reduce an oxide film by allowing preferential oxidation, and thereby contribute to the increase in the wetting force. ANi-Ge phase diagram is depicted in Figure 3, indicating the potential for various Ni-Ge intermetallic complexes and partial Ge-Ni solid solubility. Furthermore, it is contemplated that a preferential surface oxidation of germanium may occur. Based on this discussion, a contemplated composition includes an alloy comprising (or consisting of) Bi at about 89 wt%, Ag at about 11 wt%, and the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof in a range between about 10 ppm and about 1000 ppm, more preferably about 500 ppm. Such contemplated alloys may further include phosphorus in an amount of up to about 1000 ppm, and more typically about 200 ppm. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that addition of Ge to contemplated compositions within a range of about 10

ppm to about 1000 ppm will not significantly lower the solidus of such compositions. While preferred alloys comprise Ge in an amount of between about 10 ppm to 1000 ppm, it should also be recognized that Ge may also be present as dopant in concentrations of between about 10 ppm and about 1 ppm (and even less), or as an alloy component in concentrations between about 1000 ppm and about 5 wt%, and even higher (e.g., between about 5 wt% and about 7 wt%, or between about 7 wt% and about 10 wt% and even higher).

Consequently, and depending on the concentration/amount of the third element (the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof), it should be recognized that such alloys will have a solidus of no lower than about 230°C, more preferably no lower than about 248°C, and most preferably no lower than about 258°C and a liquidus of no higher than about 400°C. Especially contemplated uses of such alloys includes die attach applications (e. g., attachment of a semiconductor die to a substrate). Consequently, it is contemplated that an electronic device will comprise a semiconductor die coupled to a surface via a material comprising the composition that includes contemplated ternary (or higher) alloys. With respect to the production of contemplated ternary alloys, the same considerations as outlined above apply. In general, it is contemplated that the third element (or elements) is/are added in appropriate amounts to the binary alloy or binary alloy components.

It should further be appreciated that addition of chemical elements or metals to improve one or more physico-chemical or thermo-mechanical properties can be done in any order so long as all components in the alloy are substantially (i. e. , at least 95% of each component) molten, and it is contemplated that the order of addition is not limiting to the inventive subject matter. Similarly, it should be appreciated that while it is contemplated that silver and bismuth are combined prior to the melting step, it is also contemplated that the silver and bismuth may be melted separately, and that the molten silver and molten bismuth are subsequently combined. A further prolonged heating step to a temperature above the melting point of silver may be added to ensure substantially complete melting and mixing of the components. It should be particularly appreciated that when one or more additional elements are included, the solidus of contemplated alloys may decrease. Thus, contemplated alloys with such additional alloys may have a solidus in the range of about 260-255°C, in the range of about 255-250°C, in the range of about 250-245°C, in the range of about 245-235°C, and even lower.

Where additional elements are added, and especially where the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof is/are added, it is contemplated that the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof may ob added in any suitable form (e.g., powder, shot, or pieces) in an amount sufficient to provide the desired concentration of the at least one of zinc, nickel, germanium or a combination thereof, and the addition of the third element/elements maybe prior to, during, or after melting the Bi and Ag.

With respect to thermal conductivity of contemplated alloys, it is contemplated that compositions disclosed herein have a conductivity of no less than about 5 W/m K, more preferably of no less than about 9 W/m K, and most preferably of no less than about 15 W/m K. Thermal conductivity analysis for some of the contemplated alloys using a laser flash method indicated thermal conductivity of at least 9 W/m K is depicted in Figure 4. It is further contemplated that suitable compositions (e. g., Bi-llAg with about 500 ppm Ge) include a solder having a wetting force to wet Ag, Ni, Au, or Cu of between about 125 micro-N/mm to about 235 micro-N/mm on a wetting balance after about 1 second (see e. g., exemplary graphs as shown in Figures 5A and 5B depicting test results of contemplated alloys on various coated substrates). The improved wettability is also reflected in the change in calculated contact angle (air, with aqueous flux) which is depicted in Figure 6. Moreover, contemplated alloys were applied to Ni-plated leadframes under N2/H2 atmosphere, and the results are depicted in Figure 7 for Bi-llAg-xGe (x = 0,10, and 500 ppm), wherein the upper series was at a moderately low PO2 content and the lower series was at a lower p02 content.

It is still further contemplated that a particular shape of contemplated compositions is not critical to the inventive subject matter. However, it is preferred that contemplated compositions are formed into a wire shape, ribbon shape, or a spherical shape (solder bump).

Among various other uses, contemplated compounds (e. g., in wire form) may be used to bond a first material to a second material. For example, contemplated compositions (and materials comprising contemplated compositions) may be utilized in an electronic device to bond a semi- conductor die (e. g., silicon, germanium, or gallium arsenide die) to a leadframe as depicted in Figure 8. Here, the electronic device 100 comprises a leadframe 110 that is metallized with a silver layer 112. A second silver layer 122 is deposited on the semiconductor die 120 (e. g. , by backside silver metallization). The die and the leadframe are coupled to each other via their respective silver

layers by contemplated composition 130 (here, e. g, a solder comprising an alloy that includes Ag in an amount of about 2 wt% to about 18 wt% and Bi in an amount of about 98wt% to about 82 wt%, wherein the alloy has a solidus of no lower than about 262. 5°C and a liquidus of no higher than about 400°C). In an optimum die attach process, contemplated compositions are heated to about 40°C above the liquidus of the particular alloy for 15 seconds and preferably no higher than about 430°C for no more than 30 seconds. The soldering can be carried out under a reducing atmosphere (e. g., hydrogen or forming gas). A die attachment experiment was performed using a solder wire comprising contemplated alloys with a Ni-coated leadframe and a semiconductor die as shown in Figures 9A (photograph) and 9B (SAM [Scanning acoustic microscopy] analysis).

In further alternative aspects, it is contemplated that the compounds disclosed herein may be utilized in numerous soldering processes other than die attach applications. In fact, contemplated compositions may be particularly useful in all, or almost all, step solder applications in which a subsequent soldering step is performed at a temperature below the melting temperature of contemplated compositions. Furthermore, contemplated compositions may also be utilized as a solder in applications where high-lead solders need to be replaced with lead-free solders, and solidus temperatures of greater than about 260°C are desirable. Particularly preferred alternative uses include use of contemplated solders in joining components of a heat exchanger as a non-melting standoff sphere or electrical/thermal interconnection.

EXAMPLES Due to the differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion of various materials, solder joints will frequently experience shear loading. Therefore, it is especially desirable that alloys coupling such materials have a low shear modulus and, hence, good thermomechanical fatigue resistance. For example, in die attach applications, low shear modulus and good thermomechanical fatigue help prevent cracking of a die, especially where relatively large dies are coupled to a solid support.

Based on the known elastic moduli of the pure metals, the fact that Ag and Bi exhibit partial solid miscibility, and the fact that the Ag-Bi system contains no intermetallic or intermediate phases, it has been calculated that the room temperature shear modulus of contemplated Ag-Bi alloys will be in the range of about 13-16 GPa (assuming room temperature shear modulus to be an additive property-/. e. , following the rule-of-mixtures). Room temperature shear moduli in the range of about 13-16 GPa of contemplated alloys are especially favorable in comparison to 25 GPa for both Au- 25% Sb and Au-20% Sn alloys (calculated by the same method and making the same assumption), and 21 GPa for Alloy J (Ag-10% Sb-65% Sn), with 22.3 GPa being a measured value for Alloy J.

Further experiments confirmed previous calculations and established the following shear moduli for the following alloys: Bi-l lAg = 13. 28 Gpa; Bi-9Ag = 13. 24 Gpa; Au-20Sn = 21.26 Gpa; Sn-25sb- 10Ag (Alloy J) = 21.72 Gpa; and Pb-5Sn = 9.34 GPa. Still further experiments (data not shown) indicate that the shear strength of Bi-l lAg and Pb-5Sn are comparable.

Additional mechanical properties are depicted below in Table 1 summarizing data on liquidus, UTS, and ductility (in % elongation) for solder wire: Alloy Liquidus UTS Ductility Pb-5Sn 315 25. 4 38. 0 Pb-2. 5Ag-2Sn 296 31. 5 22. 0 Sn-8. 5Sb 246 52. 4 55. 0 Bi-11Ag 360 59. 0 34. 6 Bi-11Ag-0. 05Ge 360 69. 7 19. 1 Sn-25Ag-1 OSb 395 109. 4 10. 4 TABLE 1

Various experiments were also performed to identify suitable concentrations of a third metal (in this case: Ge) in contemplated alloys to improve wettability of such alloys to substrates that are plated with various metals, including Ag, Ni, Au, and Cu as indicated in Table 2 (all numbers in uN/mm ; phosphorus was added at 100 ppm for Cu-plated, and 1000 ppm for all other metal-plated sets):

5000ppm 2000ppm 1000ppm 500ppm 500ppm Ge Bi-9Ag Bi-9Ag Ge Ge Ge Ge +200ppm P + P Wrought-Cu 200 200 200 200 200 100 150 Ni-plated 125 100 125 125 150 50 110 Ag-plated 225 235 N/A 225 235 215 225 Au-plated 225 235 N/A 235 245 230 250 TABLE 2 Similarly, data were obtained for Bi-l lAg with and without addition of 500ppm Ge, and the results are depicted in Table 3: 500ppm Bi-11Ag Ge Wrought-Cu 185 165 Ni-plated 125 65 Ag-plated 225 215 Au-plated 235 230 TABLE 3 Thus, addition of Ge to Bi-11lAg increases the maximum wetting force (, uN/mm) as indicated in Table 4: Bi-llAg Plus P Plus Ge <BR> <BR> Wrought-Cu #90 #125 #200<BR> <BR> <BR> Ni-plated-50-110-125 TABLE 4

While addition of germanium to increase the wetting force is contemplated, it should also be appreciated that numerous alternative elements (especially nickel, zinc and or combinations thereof with or without germanium) are also considered suitable for use herein, and particularly contemplated elements include those that can form intermetallic complexes with the metal to which the alloy is bonded.

Test assemblies constructed of a silicon die bonded to a leadframe with Ag-89% Bi alloy have shown no visible signs of failure after 1500 thermal aging cycles, which is in further support of the calculated and observed low shear modulus of contemplated Ag-Bi alloys. In a further set of experiments, contemplated alloys were bonded to a Ni-plated substrate. As could be anticipated from the Ni-Bi phase diagram depicted in Figure 10A, intermetallic complexes maybe formed at the Ni- solder alloy interface as shown in Figure 1 OB. Similarly, contemplated alloys were bonded on a Ag- plated substrate, and silver scavenging could be observed under conditions as indicated in Figures 11A and 11B.

Bond strength measurements were performed with various samples, and the results and average of the samples are indicated in Table 5 below (MIL-STD-883E Method 2019.5 calls for a minimum force of 2.5 kg or a multiple thereof) : Unit Number Die Size (Cm2) Shear Strength (kg) Remarks 1 0. 2025 25. 0 Cohesive failure 2 0. 2025 53. 7 Die chipped off 30. 202529. 0Cohesive failure<BR> <BR> <BR> <BR> <BR> <BR> 4 0. 2025 24. 6 Die still intact 50. 202532. 6Die still intact 6 0. 2025 22. 0 7 0. 2025 32. 6 8 0. 2025 69. 5 9 0. 2025 28. 2 10 0. 2025 20. 7 11 0. 2025 14. 1 12 0. 2025 18. 9 Average 0. 2025 30. 9 TABLE 5

A summary of some of the physical properties and cost of contemplated alloys (and comparative alloys) is-depicted in Figure 12, which clearly demonstrates the overall advantage of contemplated alloys.

In the test assemblies and various other die attach applications the solder is generally made as a thin sheet that is placed between the die and the substrate to which it is to be soldered. Subsequent heating will melt the solder and form the joint. Alternatively the substrate can be heated followed by placing the solder on the heated substrate in thin sheet, wire, melted solder, or other form to create a droplet of solder where the semiconductor die is placed to form the joint.

For area array packaging contemplated solders can be placed as a sphere, small preform, paste made from solder powder, or other forms to create the plurality of solder joints generally used for this application. Alternatively, contemplated solders maybe used in processes comprising plating from a plating bath, evaporation from solid or liquid form, printing from a nozzle like an ink jet printer, or sputtering to create an array of solder bumps used to create the joints.

In a contemplated method, spheres are placed on pads on a package using either a flux or a solder paste (solder powder in à liquid vehicle) to hold the spheres in place until they are heated to bond to the package. The temperature may either be such that the solder spheres melt or the temperature may be below the melting point of the solder when a solder paste of a lower melting composition is used. The package with the attached solder balls is then aligned with an area array on the substrate using either a flux or solder paste and heated to form the joint.

A preferred method for attaching a semiconductor die to a package or printed wiring board includes creating solder bumps by printing a solder paste through a mask, evaporating the solder through a mask, or plating the solder on to an array of conductive pads. The bumps or columns created by such techniques can have either a homogeneous composition so that the entire bump or column melts when heated to form the joint or can be inhomogeneous in the direction perpendicular to the semiconductor die surface so that only a portion of the bump or column melts.

Thus, specific embodiments and applications of lead-free solders have been disclosed. It should be apparent, however, to those skilled in the art that many more modifications besides those already described are possible without departing from the inventive concepts herein. The inventive subject matter, therefore, is not to be restricted except in the spirit of the appended claims.

Moreover, in interpreting both the specification and the claims, all terms should be interpreted in the broadest possible manner consistent with the context. In particular, the terms"comprises"and "comprising"should be interpreted as referring to elements, components, or steps in a non-exclusive manner, indicating that the referenced elements, components, or steps maybe present, or utilized, or combined with other elements, components, or steps that are not expressly referenced.